2009年12月30日星期三

怪诞乎?不怪也!——《怪诞心理学》


别看书名起得怪诞,内容其实一点都不怪诞,就是在普及心理学的基本知识。最多,就是其中不少解释、结论与我们的直觉和常识背道而驰,而这,也是很多心理学研究结果的共同特点。
  
这本书涉及心理学的四个分支,其中两个,的确有点小众,譬如时间心理学和灵异心理学,我想,这大概是书名译为《怪诞心理学》的原因之一。另外的原因,显然是与营销策略有关:吸引眼球、占同类畅销书籍的光(《怪诞行为学》)等等,等等。
  
Richard Wiseman既然挂着“英国大众心理学传播第一教授”的头衔,他提供的很多趣味盎然的例子就不可避免得与大众传媒相关,而BBC更是无一例外得为他提供 实验平台与研究便利,所以,有些匠心独具的实验,还是值得一看。此外,不少他所提及的其他心理学家进行的实验研究,即便不是名闻遐迩,至少在业界也是知名 度极高,曾被不少书籍频频引用。
  
为了克服自己日益衰退的记忆力,做笔记已逐渐成为我的一种阅读习惯。此书的结构笔记如下:
  
时间心理学:是研究时间和心理的新学科
  • 两种效应可以解释为何人们相信星象学
    • 巴纳姆效应:人们很容易过于相信含糊其词的描述.
    • 谄媚效应:大部分人更愿意相信让他们自己看起来更正面和更积极的事情。
  • 出生日期
    • 运动员的出生月份与他们的比赛成绩密切相关: 英国职业足球联赛、美国职业棒球大联盟、英国的郡县板球赛、加拿大的冰上曲棍球赛、巴西的足球赛都证明了这种相关性。(Gladwell的outlier一书也有提及)
    • 出生日期对于运气的影响:出生时的温度对于个性的发展有着深远而长久的影响,在温度较高的月份出生的婴儿面对的出生环境相对不那么恶劣,会使他们更敢于冒险,更易接受新的机遇和经验,因此看似更幸运。
    • 税收政策会影响出生日期
  • 死亡日期
    • 节日会影响死亡日期
    • 生命中有重大意义的事件也会影响死亡日期
    • 税收政策会影响死亡日期
欺骗心理学:能够辨别谎言的真实线索不是肢体语言(是否直视你的眼睛、是否有很多手势、是否坐立不安),而是遣词造句和表达方式
  • 说谎者的描述通常缺少细节
  • 说谎者通常会从心理与谎言保持距离,所以在说话的时候很少提到自己或个人感受
  • 说话时停顿和犹豫不决的情况比较多
  • 说谎者似乎都具备了超强的记忆力, 对于说真话者可能忘记的琐碎细节他们却记得一清二楚。
  • 在监测谎言时,聆听是一种比观看更有效的方式。
灵异心理学
  • 为什么迷信?因为确定感。在不确定性持续增加的时期,人们会迫切地寻求一种确定感,这种需求会促使他们相信各种号称可以确定他们命运的不理性因素,比如迷信和巫术。
  • 为什么有那么多巧合?因为大数法则。在极为庞杂的一大群人中,存在着各种各样的行动和反应,事件的各种组合都有可能发生,许多小问题的出现看起来可能会既令人震惊又超乎寻常。
  • 为什么有灵异现象?因为低频声波。次声波可能引起胸腔震动、影响呼吸,并让人产生作呕、头疼和咳嗽等现象,此外,特定频率的声波还可能引起眼球的震动,从而让视觉出现扭曲。
决策心理学:我们的思维模式和感受在不知不觉中都会受到外在因素的影响
  • 我们的名字影响了我们对自我的评价和对职业的选择。
  • 仅仅读一个句子就能影响我们对自身年龄的感觉和对常识的记忆
  • 一个轻轻的微笑或轻微的触摸就能决定我们在酒吧和餐厅会给服务生多少小费
  • 商店里播放的音乐会偷偷地溜进我们的脑海,并影响我们花钱的数量(古典音乐会让我们购买昂贵的商品)
  • 身高会影响到爱情、婚姻、工资水平、职业、地位
  • 毛发、脸部特征、电影中描述的刻板印象会影响到对人物个性和能力的感知
  • 分享一段搞笑的经历有助于增强彼此之间的亲近程度和吸引力。(这也为当初你能迅速吸引我并让我感觉很亲近提供了一种解释。)

2009年12月29日星期二

Inglish_28/12/09

hoi polloi: 庶民,普通老百姓
If someone refers to the hoi polloi, they are referring in a humorous or rather rude way to ordinary people, in contrast to rich, well-educated, or upper-class people.
The upper class cannot very well stand by as they begin to resemble the hoi polloi.

hocus-pocus: 哄骗
If you describe something as hocus-pocus, you disapprove of it because you think it is false and intended to trick or deceive people.
Witch doctors must have some track record or they would lose all credibility, and they do blend their hocus-pocus with genuine practical knowledge such as herbal remedies and predictions of events (for instance, the weather) that are more accurate than chance.

go out on a limb: 承担风险;to take a risk; to hazard a guess

bodice-ripper: 关于两性之间浪漫的情爱小说或电影

vis-à-vis: face-to-face with;
Others are threatened, frustrated, and even humiliated by this close contact, which, among other things, makes it very easy for people to see where they stand in the world vis-à-vis everyone else.

dead hand: 不散的阴魂;难以消除的不利影响(只用单数);旧势力
You can refer to something which has a bad or depressing influence on a particular situation as a dead hand.
They do this in defiance of their authoritarian governments, which prefer to use their media not to encourage honest debate but rather to blame all their problems on others —on America, on Israel, or on a legacy of Western colonialism, on anything and anyone but the dead hand of these authoritarian regimes.

a level playing field: 平等状态,公平竞争环境
People can achieve their full potential on a level playing field

stave off:阻挡,延缓
The more people with the imagination of 11/9, the better chance we have of staving off another 9/11.

诗家的思考——《常识》


梁文道说“江山不幸诗家幸”,和“乱世出英雄”有异曲同工之妙:江山多事,为诗家提供了丰富的问题、资源去思考、爬梳、提炼、总结。这本书由时事政评集结 而成,但并未如他预言的:时过境迁,因为欠缺背景的铺排而变得不知所云,概因这些文字所契入的当年时空,依然历历在目,恍若昨日,有些乱象甚至反复上演。

能在两种文化体系中进入,跳出,交互省视两地诸种现象,是道长之福。谁说身份不重要呢?他因港人的身份而拥有相对内地同行更优渥的空间、更宽松的环境、更 多元的信息来源,所以才能直言如“皇帝的新装”中的小孩,才能更尖锐得为我们指认看似浅白自然的常识中的谬误与不足。他说这是个常识稀缺的年代,换言之, 这个时代缺少的是能独立思考的智者。身份,能使我们言谈举止似投鼠忌器;但它不能也不该扼杀独立思考的精神,不能言但仍可以想,不能为天下先至少也不该人 云亦云。当然,独立思考,不可能一蹴而就,那意味着大量的阅读,学习,练习,积累,也意味着得不断与无知,狭隘,懒惰,懈怠,情绪及本能做斗争,不能偏听 偏信,不能被情绪驾驭,不能轻信被呈现的事实,得细心辨析思维方式的谬误,努力还原被截取扭曲的事实,逐渐接近隐藏的真相。

这本书分上下两编,上编聚焦国内之乱象,因为少了束缚,有点看头;下编则放眼中东与美国,因为是国际事务,国内报章杂志与之相比,半斤八两(原因还可参考下编道长自己的引言)。一如以往,为了不雁过无痕,我试着鹦鹉学舌地记两三笔:

爱国主义和民族主义情绪:
  • 颠倒地肯定自我,过份的敏感反应,自我贬损的冲动,是百年国耻下隐藏的怨恨心理的产物,它正扭曲着中国人的正常心智与价值观。
  • 对一些历史事件的漠然,其实是不敢与真相和解、回避伤口的体现。
  • 动辄将问题上升到爱国之争,是简化问题,丧失自己思考判断能力的结果。
  • 热衷紧盯他国传媒,不敢监察自家媒体,是怯懦,是犬儒。
  • 民族主义的另一表现则是无限扩展国家范围的能力,极度简化思考方式与想象力,容易将个别的东西和部分人的意见上纲上线成国家或民族的代表。
道长的建议:
  • 国退民进,是市场经济得以健康发展的前提,但是,政府的角色需要准确定位,在教育,医疗和住房等领域不能退得太急太快,甚至完全缺席。
  • 对待人才流出,应该发展出更理性的自我了解,学习到更丰富的认知方式。换掉种族主义的思考,致力于创造优秀的学术体制和文化环境,吸引各种族人才。
  • 既不犬儒,也不激愤。反省国家的政治,经济和社会状况,是为了中国民众更民主理想的生活,而不是为了敌手而起,因为胜过敌手而终止。
  • 要多元:明白自己习以为常的社会生活,原来没有所想的那么自然那么标准。我们习惯的正常其实不是惟一。
  • 要宽容:
    • 这个世界绝不可能非黑即白,我们很容易用灰色去宽容一下自己的贪心和过错。同样的,我们也该以同等的宽容去理解逝去的前人。历史绝不只是一堆事实的积累,它的书写,它的构成,全赖我们从什么角度诠释,而这个角度的选取就和许多价值观甚至政治立场有关了。
    • 不同的口音和不同的地方俚语不只可以促进宽容与理解,更能够激活和扩张标准语的生命与内容。
  • 不能只在国内反精英反权贵,到了国际场合,也要关心弱势群体,第三世界。
  • 以平心静气的柔性态度应对国际上“中国威胁论”的恐慌心态,消除偏见,缓和对立。
  • 不能硬性经营国家,政府形象,不能强推意识形态代言人,不能为了所谓的“正面”效应而任意形塑舆论环境的生态。
  • 不能只求经济增长而不顾环境代价。
  • 处理国家大事、民族前途要制度化,而不能靠极少数深具人格魅力的个人。
  • 对官员,不奢言空泛的道德,要贯彻权力制衡,要制定职业伦理道德准则。
  • 学界要独立,学术文化要相对独立,学者的发言研究应以真理的追求为目标,而非以取悦政治人物的喜好为原点。
“平 凡之恶”(evil of banality):巨大的邪恶是由每一个人不经意的每一步逐渐积累而成的。平凡人之所以会加入邪恶,只是因为受到诱惑,只是不想与他人不同,只是想做个 乖乖听话的“好人”。心理学史上,已经有很著名的"Asch's conformity test"、“Milgram's obedience experiments" 等对此做过深刻细致的探究。可见,要做群体中的异见者,要做devil's advocate,是多么不易;而对一个群体而言,想要在正确的轨道上前进,又是多么必要。

2009年12月25日星期五

观看灾难片的心理分析


看完引起热议的灾难电影《2012》,我很是失望:要情节没情节,要人性没人性,要刺激没刺激,要场面非常雷同,被人盛赞的特效也不过如此,耐着性子看完,完全不是以往同类灾难片观后那种肾上腺激素高涨,激动莫名的状态。
  
不爽之余,我将历年的灾难大片都搜罗出来:从海难到空难,从火山融城到冰雪封城,从彗星撞击到外星人入侵,从火烧摩天大楼到水淹雾都,从海啸 到地震,从上天到入地,温习了个遍。最后,看着长长的片单——Poseidon, Deep Imapct, Dante's Peak, The Towering Inferno, The Day after tomorrow, The Independent Day, Perfect Storm, Vertical limit, Volcano, etc——叹口气:还是老片好看。想来我是老了,不知不觉已经走到生命的另一端,充满回忆而不是梦想。
  
这样爱看灾难片,似乎有点变态。幸好最近看到一篇心理学报道,为自己找到辩护的依据。
  
报道首先提及一部黑色幽默片《Harold and Maude》,看过的人,一定觉得片中两个主角——19岁的Harold和79岁的 Maude——的共同爱好怪诞无比,老少两人居然都痴迷于死亡,热衷于追逐灵车,参加陌生人的葬礼,甚至不断得模拟自杀。两人因此相知相惜,当Maude 在她的80岁生日那天自杀,促使Harold将他的怪癖搁置一边,热情得投入到生活中去。影片其实揭示了在文学和影视中恒常出现的一个主题:当人类愈接近 死亡,当人类愈能感知生命的脆弱性,他对生活的热情与欲望会愈发的强烈,他也会更加珍惜生命。与死神擦肩的人,往往会发现日常的平凡琐碎生活,焕发了全新 的意义。
  
我想,搞科学研究的人,爱独立思考的人,看书观影,脑中总会比常人多绷紧一根弦,所以他们总能从我们视若无睹处,想我们所不曾想,问我们所不 能问,擦出思想火花。若能再辅佐以精巧的实验设计,严谨的科学调研,大量的数据分析,新的理论发现就诞生了,人类,接近真相的脚步又会向前迈了小小的一 步。
  
Wray Herbert,我常follow的一个记者,最近就报道了密苏苏里大学由 Laura King领队的一组认知科学家所做的实验研究,他们针对Harlod和Maude这样的病态行为,对死亡与生命的热情两者之间的交织互动,进行了深刻的心 理学动因的挖掘,最后归结到两种:
  
   1. 稀缺理论:越稀有,越珍贵。
   2. 价值理论:如果我们非常渴望一样东西,它一定很稀有。
  
他们的结论就是:死亡是一种生命的稀缺状态,因此,当死亡的阴影漂浮在意识的上空时,人会更加珍惜生命。反之,亦然:当人们非常珍惜生命的价值时,他们往往会比那些不作如是想的人更能意识到生命的脆弱和死亡的无情。
  
看来,我这样密集得重观灾难片,似乎不仅仅是《2012》在起作用...... 但,反观自己当下的心理状态,又似乎与他们的研究所得大相径庭,可见,这样的结论也值得商榷。

2009年12月23日星期三

它山之石——《The World is Flat 3.0》


记得我还在空中飞来飞去的时候,常常在邻座看似白领精英的手上瞥到这本书;在各个机场穿梭时,也总能在书店显眼处,无一例外得遭遇这本书,且中英文版本兼 而有之。出于对时尚潮流的抵触情绪和盲目偏见,我与它保持了相当的距离,而这一冷眼旁观,就是5年。

在21世纪第一个十年快结束的时候,翻读这本增订版, 还是颇有些感慨的,因为自己,就浮沉在这股全球化的潮流中,而且生活方式,也不可避免得深受新技术的影响。Friedman强就强在能把我们都司空见惯、 熟视无睹的现实重新包装、组织、重构,再用绝不雷同的语言和丰富的事例重复但绝不枯燥得说上个几遍。等到掩卷时,仔细回想,似乎又是老生常谈,没啥新鲜玩 意,但竟然也能填满六百多页。好在普利策奖的三任得主,文笔不是盖的,读来生动流畅,以至再抬头,看出去的世界赫然已经是平的了。这个词也不能免俗地风靡 全球、深入人心了,难怪他会被誉为美国最有影响力的新闻工作者。

为了不虚此读,自己尝试着梳理了他的脉络,它山之石,可以攻玉也。

首先,Friedman以他的印度之行,开启了他”世界是平的“论述之旅。他形容自己从酣梦中醒来,赫然发现周遭的世界已经悄然变平,颇有点中国民间传说里”山中一日,世上七年“的味道。然后,他试着将全球化分为三个阶段,并对比它们的特点:

Globalization 1.0:
  • Time period:1492~1800.
  • World size: shrink from large to medium.
  • The dynamic force: brawn, muscle, horsepower, wind power, steam power and the way to deploy them
  • Key driver: Countries and governments
  • Diversity: mainly Western
Globalization 2.0:
  • Time period:1800~2000.
  • World size: shrink from medium to small.
  • The dynamic force: breakthroughs in hardware—steamships, railroads, telephones and mainframe computers
  • Key driver: Multinational companies
  • Diversity: mainly Western
Globalization 3.0:
  • Time period:2000~now.
  • World size: shrink from small to tiny.
  • The dynamic force: flat-world platform, the product of a convergence of the personal computer with fiber-optic cable, with the rise of work flow software
  • Key driver: Individuals
  • Diversity: every corner of the world
有了这样的观察所得,他接着开始寻找让世界变平的力量。得益于他的专业背景和职业生涯,通过与五湖四海的各色人等对话、沟通、访谈,他从中筛选出十大力量:
  1. 89年11月9日柏林墙的倒塌,意味着自由资本主义市场的胜利,无数被束缚了手脚限制了自由的人被释放出来,随之释放的,是多年被压抑的能量。
  2. 95年8日9日Netscape上市,使互联网真正得以无缝连接并且鲜活互动起来。
  3. Work Flow Software: 工作流程软件的不断创新推进了标准化进程,提高了效率,也彻底改变了商业运作模式。
  4. Uploading: 上传彻底改变人们之间的沟通模式,使每个人的声音都能被听到。
  5. Out-sourcing: 外包使工作岗位从高成本国家地区向低成本国家地区(譬如印度)流动。
  6. Off-shoring: 离岸使制造业从劳动力成本高昂的国家地区向低成本高密度劳动力的国家地区(譬如中国)流动。(p.s.中国和印度的形象差异,由此可见一斑)
  7. Supply Chain: 全球供应链,促使公司不断优化各个供应流程和环节,减少中间成本,降低产品价格。
  8. Insourcing:崭新的协作方式,为中小型公司提供全球供应链,允许它们与拥有自己的供应链的大型跨国公司竞争。
  9. In-forming:google等搜索引擎的诞生、繁荣,改变了人类学习掌握知识的方式。
  10. The Steroids:不断涌现的新技术使得数字化、移动化、虚拟化、个人化成为可能,增强并放大了前9种使世界变平的力量。
之后,他并没有满足此,他开始思考各种力量汇聚后是如何改变这个世界的,也即他所谓的”Triple Convergence”:
  1. 十大力量的聚合为世界创造了一个全球化的协作与竞争平台。
  2. 当技术和商业运作模式、人们学习工作习惯的改变聚合起来,生产效能、创造力发生了突破性进展。
  3. 当越来越多的竞争者加入到公平竞争的环境里,世界的政治、经济面貌也随之发生巨大改变。
然后,他建议读者必须梳理并思考该如何解决全球化带来的困惑和困境:
  • 如何确定不同社群、利益体之间的社会及经济利益关系?
  • 跨国公司又该尊重谁的价值观、促进谁的利益、忠于哪一个国家?
  • 当世界从发号施令的垂直模式向联接合作的水平模式变化,员工和老板之间的分工又该如何?
  • 个人该如何协调身为消费者、雇员、纳税者、公民以及公司股东的多重身份之间的利益冲突?
  • 拥有权的确定,谁拥有什么?
  • 就像人必须有适当的脂肪保持人体温暖一样,旧世界的有些东西是有益于社会正常运作的。关键是,什么才是真正值得保留的?
既然全球化已经是无可逆转的趋势,我们只能去适应,而不是逆潮流而行。那么,如何在新世界里找到自己的立足点,而不是被无情地淘汰呢?Friedman总结了几种核心竞争力:
  • 合作能力
  • 复合型能力(多才多艺,跨领域通才)
  • 表达能力
  • 有大局观
  • 适应能力
  • 拥有绿色行业等新兴领域的技能
  • 能为产品注入个性化价值的能力
  • 在地化能力
如何发展这些核心竞争力,从而使自己成为不可被取代的呢?Friedman有如下建议:
  • 学会如何学习
  • 学会如何浏览、利用网上的信息与资源
  • 学会如何与人合作
  • 好奇心和激情比智商更重要
  • 开发右半脑:艺术能力、移情能力、大局观、追求卓越都与右半脑相关
  • 教育系统必须推行通识教育,科学、人文与艺术教育必须齐头并进
紧接着,Friedman忧心忡忡得提醒美国同胞,危机正在悄然逼近美国,威胁着二战后美国一直做为世界领头羊的超级大国的地位:
  • 工程师和科学家的数量在下降
  • 基础学科在高等学府对学生吸引力的差距
  • 野心、进取心、吃苦耐劳的差距
  • 基层教育系统的不平衡导致教育出的那些低技术技能的学生,在越来越扁平化的世界很难找到适合的工作。
  • 对科学研究投入的预算削减是雪上加霜的失败政策
  • 网络设施发展上的差距
如果美国想要继续领跑,它必须有危机意识,改变自己,防患于未然。

谈完发达国家,Friedman转向了发展中国家,从无数事例中他肯定了全球化对发展中国家的积极作用。之后,他又将主体从国家改为公司。他列举了几条适者生存的规则:
  1. 当世界越来越平,没有什么是做不到的,关键是你做还是别人做。
  2. 当世界越来越平,最重要的竞争,不是公司与公司,个人与个人,而是你和你自己的想象力。
  3. 小公司做大事情,要做到这一点,必须充分利用所有新兴的协作工具,以致更快、更广、更深和更远。
  4. 大公司做小事情,为客户提供定制化服务。
  5. 最杰出的公司是最优秀的协作者。
  6. 最杰出的公司需要定期检查内部的组织结构和工作流程,去除冗余部分,为客户更有效的服务。
  7. 最杰出的公司外包的目的是为了更快的创新,以更便宜的价格扩张,获取更多市场份额,雇用更多不同领域的专家,而不是仅仅是为了缩减开支。
  8. 当世界越来越平,怎样做事变得越来越重要。
    • 价格、产品设计和流程的差异化,不再重要,因为它们很容易被复制、抄袭。重要的是如何对待员工、客户、供应商和投资者,差异带来机会。
    • 在愈来愈透明化和互动化的世界,形象、声誉愈发重要。
  9. 挖掘自身潜力,不要试图建筑壁垒保护自己。
紧接着,他谈及了全球化对个人及文化形态的影响,他认为全球化虽然有同一化各种文化的可能,但更有增强文化多元性的趋势,并且是以一种前所未见的 影响力。因为新兴媒体的普及,使移民至发达国家的人群也能随时随地保持与本土文化的紧密联系。不过,象任何硬币都有正反面一样,无所不在的联接使得人们天 涯若比邻的同时,也让人与人变得咫尺若天涯。

此外,水能载舟,亦能覆舟,全球化也并不总是带来光明、进步,它也有阴暗面和毁灭性:
  • 2003年SARS的肆虐、2009年H1N1的蔓延现身说法:变平了的世界在流行性病毒面前,也变得愈加脆弱。
  • 在日益密切的世界面前,有些文化形态兴旺发达,有些文化却令人沮丧得衰落下去。两相对比之下,落后的人们因为挫败、羞辱而心怀怨恨,在看不到 未来、没有出路、希望破灭的境况下,会铤而走险,发泄愤怒,毁灭世界。龃龉丛生的中东地区、人体炸弹盛产地、发动9/11袭击并掀起全球反恐浪潮的基地组 织就是明证。
  • 当世界失去边界,当国家失去保护壁垒,落后国家地区的人们,未必能进入公平竞争的行列,因为Mathew Effect表明,全球化造成的也许是强者更强,弱者更弱。
最后Friedman的结论就是:在扁平化的世界里,要活得乐观、积极而不是活在恐惧中,要为梦想而奋斗而不是沉湎于回忆,要善用新技术来建设美丽新世界,而不是毁人毁几。

2009年12月15日星期二

伤心桥下春波绿,曾是惊鸿照影来



一到夜里的这个时候,心脏就开始跳得不规则,忽快忽慢的,喘不过气时,就只能猛咳嗽几声。有时,我忍不住想,会不会是那会留下的“病根”呢?

好久没敢听音乐了,当年添置的迷你音响也落了一层细细的灰尘,尤其是搁在上面的那张自己精心刻录的cd.

静静得躺在黑夜里,万家灯火在风雨飘摇的窗外次第熄灭,夜影如墨。细若游丝的音乐轻轻地叩击着鼓膜,想要和你一起在夜色里安静得聆听音乐的念想,想要让歌声替我倾诉心声的渴望,又一点点清晰鲜活起来,苦涩也一点点从心底一直泛上舌尖。

当“一切”响起,我仿佛又看见你在地铁里带着耳机泪流满面的样子,心脏,突然就停止了跳动......

2009年12月14日星期一

Justice 听后记(5)

第十讲:The Good citizen

Aristotle believed the purpose of polities is:
  • shape the character
  • cultivate the virture of citizens
  • inculcate civic excellence
  • make possible a good way of life

He thought as a good citizen, you must practice in communities and politics because only during excercising you can discern paritcular features which can't be learned from reading books.

Aristotle's theory of justice is teleological, it is a matter of fit the person with their virtues and excellence to the approriate roles.

Using Casey Martin v. PGA tour case as example,Prof. Sandel helped students to understand deeply that Golf debate is not only a debate of the purpose, the teleological feature, but also the debate about allocation of the honor. If it was allowed to use golf cart in tournament, Golf is no longer viewed as a sports, a competition, instead, it would become a game of skills, an entertainment.

Further, Sandel addressed the contradiction of Aristotle's teleological theory with freedom: Be free is to be independent of any pariticular roles, traditions, conventions. Tie justice to some particular conceptions of goods restricts the freedom of individuals.

第十一讲: Obligations and Loyalties

Aristotle v.s Kant & Rawl on Freedom and Justice:

  • Aristotle: We are free insofar as we have the capacity to realize our potential.
  • Kant: We are free when we have the capacity to act automonously and capable of choosing our ends.
  • Aristotle: Justice consists in giving people what they deserve, and a just society is one that enables human beings to realize their highest nature and to live the good life.
  • Kant: A just society is to set up a fair framework of rights within which citizens may be free to pursue their own conceptions of the good for themselves.

The comparison between Aristotle and Kant also leads to the communitarian view of self: The self is claimed or encumbered to some extent by history, tradition, the family, the communities, the country.

There are two kinds of moral obligations defined by libertarian:

  1. Universal duties that we owe to every human being;
  2. Voluntary obligations that we acquire by consent, as when we agree to help someone or promise to be faithful to our partners and friends.
In additon to the above, Communitarian think people also have obligations of membership, solidarity, and loyalty which are not necessarily based on consent.

Several examples to weigh loyalty over duty are presented in the course, among discussion, most students voted for moral obligations to do more for people who are closer to them, even though it might compete with a universal duty to humanity.

第十二讲:Same Sex Marriage

In beginning, Prof. Sandel summarized: The love of humanity is noble sentiment, but most of time we live our lives by smaller solidarities. This may reflect certain limits to the bounds of moral sympathy, but more important, it reflects the fact, that we learn to love humanity, not in general, but through its particular expressions.

After hosting a heated debate about same sex marriage, after telling the story how the Massachusetts supreme judicial court changed its standpoint in the same-sex marriage case, Sandel concluded that government can't be neutral on difficult moral questions and reasoning about good, about purposes, and ends is unavoidable feature of aruging about justice. Put it another way, it has to figure out the essential point and purpose of moral issues before to reach a just conclusion. In that case, the exlucsive and permanent commitment of the partners to one another is the essential point and purpose of the marriage, therefore, the same-sex marriage is permitted.

Unavoidably, there is persisting disagreement about the good life and about the moral and religious questions in mordern pluralist society. Sandel suggested we can apply the method of moral reasoning which was proposed by Rawls——the method of reflective equlibrium. That is moving back and forth between our considered judgements about particular cases and the general principles we would articulate to make sense of these judgments. In Rawls opinion, a conception of justice is a matter of the mutual support of many considerations, of everything fitting together into one coherent view.

Finally, Sandel told us the aim of this course is to awaken the restlessness of reason, the purpose of the philosophy is by estranging us from the familiar, by unsettling our settled assumptions. Once the familiar turns strange, Once we start to reflect on our circumstance, it's never quite same again.

Justice 听后记(4)

第八讲:What’s a Fair and Deserved?

什么是一个公平的开始?什么才是我们应得的?

这一讲从John Rawls的"veil of ignorance" 理论开始,探讨了收入、财富、机会和资源分配的公平程度。

根据Rawl的理论,一个社会是否公正,取决于社会制度是否是在戴上“无知的面纱”以后制定的。只有在人们不知道自己的年 龄、性别、种族、宗教、智力、社会地位、家庭背景、个人优势和人生目标的情况下,他们所制定的规则才不可能倾向其自身利益,也因此,更客观公正。他的理论 包含三大原则:

  1. Equal basic liberties: Everyone should have the same set of basic liberties, including the freedoms of speech and conscience, the right to hold office and to vote for elected officials, the right to hold personal property, and so on.
  2. Fair equality of opportunity: People with the same natural talents and the same willingness to use them should have the same chances of success, no matter how rich or poor their parents, no matter their sex, or race, or any other social distinction.
  3. Difference Principle: There should be no differences in income and wealth, except those social and economic inequalities will work to the benefit of the least well-off.

学生针对人类历史上存在的几种社会财富分配体系,探讨了不公平存在的地方和各种体系的优劣:

  • 封建贵族体制: 没有公平的起点,出生的偶然性决定了财富的分配。
  • 自由主义体制:纯粹由市场来决定。但家庭背景、成长环境等因素决定了不可能有均等的教育机会,针对146个精英学校的学生家庭经济背景所做的调查表明,仅有3%来自穷困家庭,而70%都来自富裕的家庭。
  • 精英领导体制: 看似有公平的起点,面对均等的教育机会,但天赋的差异仍旧决定了不平等的存在。特别需要指出的是:这种制度下,不可否认,个人通过自身努力抵达成功,但真 正起决定性作用的,是个人对社会的贡献结果而不是个人所付出的努力多少,这其中,依旧有与生俱来的才能、优良的家庭环境、运气等各种偶然性因素存在,而这 些并不是个人所能控制并努力就可以获取的,就此而言,成就和财富也并不完全是应得的。
  • 平等主义体制:在这种体制下,人们允许发挥自己的天赋并获利,但他们的财富会被再分配,以服务于社会最底层。
Rawls因此在moral desert和entiltments to legitimate expectation之间划下分界线,他的differnence principle就是针对后者而言的。

第九讲:Affirmative Action and Purpose

这一课,从Cheryl Hopwood起诉德州法学院的官司开始,针对“平权行动”展开了激烈的讨论:学校是否有权利在招生时优先考虑少数种族?

赞成和反对的,势均力敌。其中赞成派给出的论据有:

  • corrective: 修正不均等的教育背景带来的不平等
  • compensatory: 补偿过去的不平等政策带来的伤害和不平等后果。
  • diversity: 从社会使命的目的出发,为教育注入多元性的元素。

反对派则声称个人不应该为自己不能控制的因素而被拒之门外。

接着,亚里士多德粉墨登场,有别于kant和Rawls,他关于公正的理论则是从目的论出发点,其中涉及两个主要因子:资源,以及分配得到该资源的人。亚里士多德认为关于公正的判断应该以终为始,从目的出发,目的决定了资源的分配。

延伸阅读:刘瑜的《谁有特权上大学》,对“无知之幕”、“平权行动”、“程序性正义”及“补偿性正义”均有涉及,而且论述简洁精妙。

2009年12月13日星期日

Justice 听后记(3)

第六讲:Motives and Morality

此讲,Sandel介绍了哲学家Immanuel Kant关于自由和道德的观点。

首先,自由是与必然相对的,换言之,所谓自由,即你的行动必须是完全自主的,你必须是跟据自己的自由意志,自己设定的规则来行动,而不是被自身的本能、欲望所驱策,不是受限于独裁者的法律,不是被环境所限制的,也不能是被他人诱导的。也就是说,autonomous 和heternomous的区别,为自由确定了界限。

也因此,对kant而言,自由和道德产生了联系。他认为道德不应该取决于行为的后果,而应该取决于初始的意图和行为的动机。也就是说,行为的道德价值,取决于行为的动机是基于自主选择的责任义务所在,还是基于自身的利益计算。Kant 认为,doing the right things for the wrong reason,不属于道德的范畴.

为此,Kant给出了三种对比:
  • 关于reason, 你必须仔细区分categorical v.s hyperthetical imperatives: 其中,Kant也给出了两套规则加以区分categorical imperatives
    • the formular of universal law
    • the formular of humanity as ends
  • 关于motive,你必须仔细鉴别duty v.s. inclination
  • 关于freedom,你必须根据意愿、决断来界定autonomous v.s heteronomous.
有且只有一种行为,出自categorical imperative的reason, 自主选择的,基于责任而触发的,才是道德的。

听的时候,我不可避免得想起当初和你关于intention和effect的讨论,想起你曾引用的一句话:“A path to hell is paved with good intentions", 我不禁疑惑,究竟是intention更重要,还是effect更重要?我们是否可以因为good motive而不去计较或者原谅bad effect?我们是否可以因为good effect而不去计较bad motives?如果是Kant,他又会如何反驳这句话呢?

此外,有趣的是,在Sandel讲述必须尊重人类,不能以他人为手段来达成自己的目的时,我想起最近刚看到的一篇心理学报道,在该报道中,提到最新的实验结果表明:人类潜意识中有视他人为可利用的工具并加以类别化记忆的倾向。看来,越来越多的证据指向,”人之初,性本恶”哦。

Watch it on Academic Earth


第七讲:Lying and Principles

According to Kant, white lie is not moral. However, there is moral disticntion between outright lie and carefully evasion from truth, because the latter shows a certain homage and the elemantary respect to the diginity of the law of moral.

According to John Rawls, the principle of justice are the princples that we would all agree to if we were choosing rules for our society and no one had any unfair bargaing power. Based on this, an agreement is only fair when it is made both voluntarily and against a background of equality.

Watch it on Academic Earth

2009年12月12日星期六

Justice 听后记(2)

从第三讲开始,Sandel教授离开了功利主义,转向了自由主义这一流派。

第三讲,Freedom to Choose

与功利主义忽视个人权利截然相反,自由主义声称个人的权利是不可侵犯的,人拥有他自己。他们反对政府的家长式作风,反对道德立法,反对财富再分配,认为财富再分配等同于劳力剥削和奴隶制。这其中的代表人物是Robert Nozick。

Watch it on Academic Earth


第四讲,Natural Rights

这一讲,Sandel从Nozick的观点自然过渡到John Locker的。Locker不是纯粹的自由主义者,他既是自由主义某些观点的支持者,又是反对者。他的两大主张是:

Private property
  • The state of nature is a condition we decide to live
  • The natural right to life, liberty and property is inalienable rights, we can't give up or take away from anyone else.
  • The goverment is limited by the obligation on the part of majority to respect and enforce the inalienable rights, and based on consent.
Consent:
  • It is the collective consent in society.
  • We are giving our "implied consent" once we decided to live in society
  • As long as the rule of law is not arbitrary to take of life, liberty or property-- then it isn't a violation of the fundamental rights of individuals.
  • If the majority decides a generally applicable law and if it votes duly according to fair procedures, then there is no violation.

Watch it on Academic Earth


第五讲:Army system & Surrogacy

这一讲,Sandel触及了consent的限度。围绕美国内战的征兵系统和伊拉克战争的自愿参军方式,Sandel带领学生展开了激烈的争论,并比较了三种军队征兵方式的公正程度:
  • Increase pay and benefits to attract more soliders
  • Military conscription
  • Hire mercenaries
紧接着,针对新泽西州1988年"Baby M"的官司,Sandel要求大家投票表决是否应该强迫这个代理母亲遵守合同,放弃孩子的抚养权。他要求大家为各自的观点辩护并陈述理由,经过激烈讨论,他最后总结,公平有时并不仅仅有双方自愿的承诺和协议即可确保,因为:
  • 交易双方,有可能因为地位、经济条件的不对等和环境压力而导致隐性的强迫和不公平的存在;(bargaing power)
  • 交易双方,有可能因为信息不对称、不完整,并不完全意识到协议后果而导致事先的许可失去完全的公平性。(equally information)
更进一步,Sandel说明,有些东西是不可以被交易的,因为一旦以金钱来衡量,会去人性化,会被低估本身的价值,譬如尊重、爱、感激、荣誉等等。

To summarize, something can not be bought by money. Merely because conduct purchased by money are "voluntary" and consented do not mean that it is good or beyond regulation and prohibition.

Watch it on Academic Earth

Justice 听后记(1)

对公平、公正的追求,一直左右着我的人生选择,也为我带来不少困惑。感谢互联网,今日,我有缘能在academic earth上聆听哈佛教授Michael Sandel的“Justice, What's the right thing to do?"讲座,What a Serendipty!

Justice一课,是哈佛史上影响深远也是最受欢迎的课程之一。讲课过程中,Sandel常常先抛出颇具道德争议的案例来拷问学生 的良知,既有假设性的,又有真实发生的,一旦学生给出观点,他会继续追问他们的判断依据和推理过程,然后再改变事件发生的情境和条件,进一步挑战他们的道德底 线。学生往往在不知不觉中被引导入左右为难的困境,难以为继之下,Sandel开始概况、总结与之相关的哲学各流派的观点,引经据典,旁征博引,带领学生重新审视曾经习以为常、不假思索的选 择与道德判断。

在第一讲里,他首先用一个假设性问题——”如果你可以选择,会不会牺牲1个人的生命来挽救另外的5个人?”抛出主题 -The Morality of Mude。其中,发人深省的是,为什么能产生同样后果的不同行为,在不同的情境下会导致不同的选择?是什么道德准则在支配他们做出这样的选择?在师生互动 和脑力激荡后,Sandel水到渠成的说明了这之中其实隐含了两种道德判断(Moral Reasoning)标准:
  • Consequentialist: 他们的道德判断是基于行为所带来的后果。 功利主义者属于这一类。
  • Categorical: 这一类的道德判断是不管行为所带来的后果优劣,都必须受到一定的权利和责任的限制。一旦某种行为属于这一类别,哪怕它能带来再好的后果,也是不道德的。
紧 接着,他讲述了一个发生在19世纪的真实案例——“海难船员合谋杀死同伴,食其肉饮其血最终生还。” 模拟的学生陪审团中,就存在基于这两种评判标准而做出的不同的虚拟审判。最后,Sandel为大家介绍了功利主义的鼻祖边沁,和他们所宣扬的行事原则:最 大化群体的幸福指数,最小化痛苦总额。

Watch it on Academic Earth



第二讲伊始,Sandel用福特公司通过比较改善其中一款汽车安全隐患的收益开支后,基于功利主义 的原则做出不作为决定这一事例,进一步提出问题:生命是否有价?如果有价,又该如何计量?是否存在一种通用的统一的衡量价值的手段?该如何衡量群体的快乐 指数?为了大多数群体的利益,是否就可以牺牲少数族群的权利?这些问题其实也间接指出功利主义的三个软肋:
  • 将幸福与高兴简单得等同起来。能力、成就、友谊和爱,只有在它们能给人们带来快乐的时候才意味着幸福,否则就不做计量。
  • 只要是快乐,不分类别都具备一样的权重。痛苦亦然。
  • 允许为多数人而牺牲少数人的利益。
自 边沁以降,反对功利主义的自然不在少数。于是,Sandel又为大家引见了另一位哲学家——J.S.Mil. 身为边沁的朋友和功利主义的忠实追随者,J.S. Mill一直试图修正并完善其中的一些论断,譬如快乐的确有高等和低级之分,譬如如何界定什么是更高层次的幸福等等等等。有趣的是,在试验Mill的界定 标准时,大部分学生都认可哈姆雷特是更高层次的精神享受,但又更愿选择能带来笑声的Simphson影片。这也侧面推翻了Mill关于快乐层次的高下之分 的定义。

Watch it on Academic Earth

2009年12月10日星期四

心智探奇


总算是啃完了Steven Pinker的鸿篇巨作——《How The Mind Works》。见识过白云变苍狗,经历过沧海成桑田,困惑过人的言行,在他的引领下一窥人类心智的奥秘,明白人脑是如何工作的,了解行为背后隐藏的动机, 就不失为一种答疑解惑的选择。不过,因为自身的知识储备不足之故,因为是英文原著之故,这次的探索之旅尤显艰难而漫长,却也不虚此行。
  
认知科学是一门新近发展起来的学科,Steven Pinker是其中的佼佼者,也是备受赞誉的科普作家。读的时候,我折服于他的博学、睿智,就像一个武林高手,在心理学、生物学、语言学、神经科学、人类 学和人工智能各领域之间纵横捭阖、来去自如,观点独到精辟,立论严谨周密,论证独到犀利,例证丰富新鲜,行文汪洋恣肆;浅学陋识的我不得不放慢脚步,常常 需要回过头再读一遍,细细地咀嚼,慢慢地消化。他善用譬喻,能以我们所了解熟悉的,说明我们所不了解的陌生理论,清晰明了。此外,很多看起来似是而非的理 论,到了他的手里,三两下间就被拆解得原形毕露。
  
Steven从人类心智的标准设备入手,以心智计算理论和物竞天择理论为纲领,条分缕析,说明心智是如何让我们能辨识影像、思考问题的,进 而,他揭示了人类的情绪谜团,详加审视了人类社会关系网络的各个节点,最后,他剖析了人类追求艺术的动机以及思索生命的意义等,通过对无数个“为什么”的 寻根究底,帮助我们理解“基因的自私”并不必然代表生物个体的自私,达尔文提出的复制、变异和淘汰三种机制又是如何决定了人类行为的每一个细节,演变出大 千世界生命现象的林林总总,并最终促进了我们对人类自身的理解。
  
读的时候,我偶尔也会被Steven“惊世骇俗”的观点吓到,但正如他一再声明的:进化心理学的任务,不是评估人类的本性,而是以最少的心理 学假设,结合生物进化的理论,解释尽可能多的客观事实,将我们所了解的人类本性与我们所掌握的世界是如何运作的知识融会贯通起来,用科学的手段为人类提供 令人满意的洞察力和认知。此书,无关道德判断,仅仅是专注于科学假设、推断、观察和分析。

Notes on 《How the Mind Works》Ch.8 —— The Meaning of Life

In this final chapter, Steven discusses mankind's higher callings: art, music, literature, humor, religion, and philosophy.

Arts:
  • Art are fascinating but biologically functionless activities, they are nonadaptive by-products based on the critieria for biological adaptation.
  • People pursue the arts because that art is the proof of status.
  • People evolved pleasure-circuts that gave them trickles of enjoyment from the art.
Music: As far as biological cause and effect are concerned, music is useless. Then why music is pusued? Steven suspect that music is auditory cheesecake, an exquisite confection crafted to tickle the sensitive spots of at least six of our mental faculties.
  • Language: Music has been called "heightened speech," and it can literally grade into speech.
  • Auditory scene analysis:When we hear harmonically related tones, our auditory system is satisfied that it has successfully carved the auditory world into parts that belong to important objects in the world, namely, resonating soundmakers like people, animals, and hollow objects.
  • Emotional calls: melodies evoke strong emotions because their skeletons resemble digitized templates of our species' emotional calls.
  • Habitat selection: some of the stripped-down figures and rhythms at the heart of a melody are simplified templates of evocative environmental sounds.
  • Motor control: Repetitive actions have an optimal rhythm which is the universal component of music. We get moderate pleasure from being able to stick to constant rhythmic pattern, Music recreates the motivational and emotional components of movement.
Movie/Literature:
  • provide delight
  • simulate a triumph over tragedy.
  • give obvious strategic advantages in the games of life: gossip is a favorite pastime in all human societies because knowledge is power.
  • supply us with a mental catalogue of the fatal conundrums we might face someday and the outcomes of strategies we could deploy in them.
Humor:
  • Laughter is a form of communication: it is noisy not because it releases pent-up psychic energy but so that others may hear it.
  • Laughter is involuntary for the same reason that other emotional displays are involuntary: The brain broadcasts an honest, unfakable, expensive advertisement of a mental state to convince an audience that an internal state is heartfelt rather than a sham.
  • Laughter is a signal of mock aggression
  • Humor is often a kind of aggression.
  • Humor is also a prized tactic of rhetoric and intellectual argument.
  • Humor begins with a train of thought in one frame of reference that bumps up against an anomaly: an event or statement that makes no sense in the context of what has come before. The anomaly can be resolved by shifting to a different frame of reference, one in which the event does makes sense. And within that frame, someone's dignity has been downgraded.
  • What is humor for:
    • Humor can be an anti-dominance weapon.
    • Dominance is impotent before a mob who are united by humor.
    • Humor is an effective weapon that forces people, at least for a moment, to agree to things they would otherwise deny.
    • Kidding is a precision instrument for assessing the kind of relationship one has with a person.
Religion:
  • Religion is a desperate measure that people resort to when the stakes are high and they have exhausted the usual techniques for the causation of success—medicines, strategies, courtship, and, in the case of the weather, nothing.
  • Religious concepts are human concepts with a few emendations that make them wondrous and a longer list of standard traits that make them sensible to our ordinary ways of knowing.
  • Theology is the effort to explain the unknowable in terms of the not worth knowing.
Philosophy:
  • Some philosophical enigmas baffled human for millennia like:
    • consciousness in the sense of sentience or subjective experience
    • the self
    • Free will
    • meaning
    • Knowledge
    • morality
  • Our thoroughgoing perplexity about these enigmas may come from a mismatch between the very nature of these problems and the computational apparatus that natural selection has fitted us with.
  • Our bafflement at the mysteries of the ages may have been the price we paid for a combinatorial mind that opened up a world of words and sentences, of theories and equations, of poems and melodies, of jokes and stories, the very things that make a mind worth having.
  • Philosophers try to clairfy these problems, chip off chunks that can be solved, and solve them or hand them over to science to solve.
  • The computational aspect of consciousness (what information is available to which processes), the neurological aspect (what in the brain correlates with consciousness), and the evolutionary aspect (when and why did the neurocomputational aspects emerge) are perfectly tractable, thus can help us make progress and eventually reach a complete understanding.

2009年12月7日星期一

白发如新——《认得几个字》


认字有盲点吗?
  
张大春的答案是:有。他用89个俯拾即是的例子告诉我们:穷尽我们之一生,未必能有机会完完整整地将听过,说过,读过,写过几千万次的某个字 认识透彻。常常地,我们以为我们已经认识的人,了解的字,明白的意义会忽然以陌生人的姿态出现,吓我们一跳。而之所以误读,误写,误以为是,是我们对于认 字这件事想得太简单,用字遣词或不知不解得人云亦云,或不求甚解得望文生义,或一知半解得浅尝辄止;这其中,固然有文字在长期演化变迁中的意义流失,面目 全非之外因,更有我们自己的诸多内因之故:有懒惰懈怠造成的轻率遗漏,有随波逐流引起的积重难返,有缺乏好奇心导致的囫囵吞枣,不知为知之。
  
读此书前,我知道自己因生性一向疏懒之故,读书不愿多翻字典,满足于浅表之见,识字肯定不算多;读完此书,背上一片微凉,从此以后,不敢妄称 识得几个字。所幸,闻道虽迟,知耻而后补之永远不嫌太迟,自今起,不妨学做有心人,上书山,下辞海,追根朔源,探究曾经习以为常的字词背后的文化故实,即 便不能与字词倾盖如故,也断断不能白发如新。
  
此外,捧读之际,张大春膝下一双垂髫小童,惫赖模样,跃然纸上,稚言趣答,让人忍俊不禁;他的舔犊之情深,教育之用心良苦,流转于字里行间,让人心有所动;他父亲的”遗士“风范,他的孺慕之情,父与子的吟唱作答,父爱的浸润传承,让人心有所感。
  
此书,的确如阿城之言,是有体温的。

2009年12月3日星期四

Notes on 《How the Mind Works》Ch.7 —— Family Values

This chapter is about the psychology of social relations. It explores the distinct kinds of thoughts and feelings about kin and non-kin, and about parents, children, siblings, dates, spouses, acquaintances, friends, rivals, allies, and enemies. Meanwhile, several controversial opinions and ideas are discussed and presented, which should be cautiously seperated from the morality's standpoint. When you finish this chapter, you will know, in short, people's social motives are strategies that are tailored to the tournaments they play in.

The characteristics of Kinship:
  1. Kinship is digital: you are either kith of somebody or not, can't be in between.
  2. kinship is a relation.
  3. kinship is topological: Everyone is a node in a web whose links are defined by parenthood, generation, and gender.
  4. kinship is self-contained.
The theory of parent-offspring conflict:
  • In essence it is sibling rivalry: siblings compete among themselves for their parents' investment, whereas the parents would be happiest if each accepted a share proportional to his or her needs. Put into another way: children want to take more than what their parents want to give.
  • It offers a straightforward explanation to Opedial complex & Electra complex: Delay the day of their baby brother or sister coming by competing with fathers for their mothers' attentions.
  • It also subverts the biology-culture distinction theory: Personality is not a product of socialization by parents, actually, it is proved that about 50% of the variation in personality has genetic causes.
Why is there sex to begin with?
The best theory is that sex is a defense against parasites and pathogens: Sexual reproduction is a way of giving its offspring a head start in the race against the germs.

The cause of sex differences --the theory of parental investment: The greater-investing sex chooses, the lesser-investing sex competes.
  1. Male competition for access to females
  2. Female choice in males: men vary in their ability and willingness to invest in their children
Why people developed marriage?
  1. Men and women live together in large groups, men need to compete for sexual access to women
  2. Men invest in their offspring, women need to compete for men's ability and willingness to invest
  3. In marriage a man and woman form a reproductive alliance that is meant to limit demands from third parties for sexual access and parental investment.
From reproductive success point of view:
  • A part of the male mind should want a variety of sexual partners to increase reproduction.
  • Another part of the male sexual mind is an ability to be easily aroused by the faintest hint of a possible sex partner.
Polygyny v.s Monogamy:
  • Inequality has allowed a kind of polygyny to flourish.
  • Under polygyny, men vie for extraordinary Darwinian stakes—many wives versus none.
  • Marriage arrangements are usually described from the man's point of view, not because the desires of women are irrelevant but because powerful men have usually gotten their way.
  • Polyandry is vanishingly rare. It only happens in very harsh environments, but the arrangement collapses when conditions improve.
  • In a freer society polygyny is not necessarily bad for women, on financial and ultimately on evolutionary grounds, a woman may prefer to share a wealthy husband than to have the undivided attention of a pauper, and may even prefer it on emotional grounds.
  • Legal monogamy historically has been an agreement between more and less powerful men, not between men and women.
  • Laws enforcing monogamy would work to women's disadvantage.
  • Rootcause: a single difference between the sexes--men's greater desire for multiple partners.
The sex difference in adultery/jealous:
  • A woman has an affair because she feels that the man is in some way superior or complementary to her husband.
  • A man has an affair because the woman is not his wife.
  • Women should squirm at the thought of their husbands or boyfriends giving time, resources, attention, and affection to another woman.
  • Men should squirm at the thought of their wives or girlfriends having sex with another man.
  • Women's jealousy appears to be under the control of more sophisticated software, and they can appraise their circumstances and determine whether the man's behavior poses a threat to their ultimate interests.
  • Men's jealousy is cruder and more easily triggered.
  • men may be upset about affection because it could lead to sex;
  • women may be upset about sex because it could lead to affection.
Status:
  • Status is the public knowledge that you possess assets that would allow you to help others if you wished to.
  • The psychology of status was driven by four "pecuniary canons of taste":
  1. Conspicuous leisure
  2. Conspicuous consumption
    • It is counterintuitive because squandering wealth can only reduce it, bringing the squanderer down to the level of his or her rivals. But it works when other people's esteem is useful enough to pay for and when not all the wealth or earning power is sacrificed.
    • It works when only the richest can afford luxuries.
    • People at the top of social ladder try to look different from the people below them.
    • People try to mimic and look like the people above them.
    • The style trickles downward from upper classes to lower leads to the fashion.
  3. Conspicuous waste
  4. Conspicuous outrage.
Friendship:
  • Cooperativeness can evolve when the parties interact repeatedly, remember each other's behavior, and reciprocate it.
  • The point of friendship, in evolutionary terms, is to save you in hard times when it's not worth anyone else's trouble.
War:
  • War is a game that benefits men (natural selection favors traits that increase fitness on average) more than women.
  • The coalition acting together can gain a benefit that its members acting alone cannot, and that spoils are distributed according to the risks undertaken.
  • Men are willing to fight collectively only if they are confident of victory and none of them knows in advance who will be injured or killed.
  • People's mind is equipped to volunteer for a risk of death in a coalition but only if we do not know when death will come.